1. Consumption, not withdrawal, is the key measure of water use.
2. Animal agriculture accounts for about 40% of total U.S. water consumption.
3. An estimated 38% of total water consumption is attributed to crops specifically used for animal feed; direct uses for livestock account for ~2%.
4. In the drought-prone west, alfalfa/hay for livestock is the largest water consumer in nearly 60% of the region’s sub-basins.
5. Irrigation of all U.S. crops accounts for ~75 to 80% of total water consumption; about half of crop irrigation goes to crops specifically used for animal feed.
6. There is limited understanding of the outsized role of agriculture in water usage; the enormous footprint of animal ag is even more obscure.
Yes. Broadly estimated, animal agriculture accounts for about 40% of all the water consumed in the U.S.[1,2] Of every 100 gallons consumed per capita for all products, services, and life support, 40 gallons are used to produce animal-sourced foods. Most of animal ag’s usage is for irrigating the feed crops that are processed and delivered to confined animals on factory farms.
About 80% of the water consumption in the U.S. is attributable to agriculture, mostly for irrigation. And, broadly estimated, about half of agriculture’s consumption is due to animal ag.[3]
This is a broad estimation based on 3 reports from experienced water researchers and applying our estimates of crops specifically used for animal feed. See, https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/19XsKhVFbOiyB01Kyz_WVVBdFBa_Pd1JsCISscE7tr08/edit?gid=0#gid=0
For estimates of crops specifically used for animal feed, see, Water Usage by Feed Crops.
Note: We focus on figures for consumption when available, rather than withdrawal. (See the following question.) Throughout these pages we use the word water to mean freshwater, i.e., groundwater or surface water – from lakes, rivers, and streams. For the 80% figure see the following questions.
Water withdrawal refers to the amounts of water removed from surface or groundwater sources.[1,2]
Water consumption refers to the amounts of water withdrawn that are “evaporated, transpired, incorporated into products or crops, consumed by humans or livestock, or otherwise removed from the immediate water environment.”[3,4]
Dieter, C.A., et al., (2018) Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2015, U.S. Geological Survey, p. 61.
Paul Reig (2013) What’s the Difference Between Water Use and Water Consumption? World Resources Institute. https://www.wri.org/insights/whats-difference-between-water-use-and-water-consumption#
Dieter, C.A., et al., (2018), p. 59.
Water Footprint Calculator (2022) Water Use, Withdrawal and Consumption. https://www.watercalculator.org/footprint/water-use-withdrawal-consumption/
Water that is withdrawn may or may not be consumed. If it is consumed, it is not returned to its original source and is not available for reuse.[1]
Withdrawal figures are especially unhelpful in comparing shares of U.S. water usage because thermoelectric power plants withdraw enormous amounts of freshwater for cooling purposes but usually return that water to its original source.[2]
Agricultural irrigation, on the other hand, consumes most of the water it withdraws.[3] Water that is consumed is lost, which affects the available amount of the water supply.[4] Whenever possible, we present consumption figures.
Water Footprint Calculator (2022) Water Use, Withdrawal and Consumption. https://www.watercalculator.org/footprint/water-use-withdrawal-consumption/
Dieter, C.A., et al., (2018) Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2015, U.S. Geological Survey, Table 2A, p. 10 and Table 12, p. 43. [Thermonuclear power uses ~34% of all freshwater withdrawals (95.1 billion gallons per day), but consumptive use is just 4.3 billion gallons per day or less than 5%. While agriculture consumes 62% of all water withdrawn.]
Dieter, C.A., et al., (2018), Table 7, p. 27. [Consumption of 73.2 billion gallons per day (Bgal/d) /118 Bgal/d withdrawal = 62%. Note that water used for thermonuclear power, though not consumed, can be very damaging to fish and other organisms due to excess heat added to their ecosystems.]
Marston, L., et al., (2018). High‐resolution water footprints of production of the United States. Water Resources Research, 54(3), 2288-2316. p. 2289. [“Additionally, quantifying consumptive water use will provide a more accurate assessment of the amount of water required for production and enable us to better determine locations of water scarcity. This is because water withdrawals ignore the fact that return flows can be utilized many times.”]
Yes, agriculture consumes far more water than any other category. And consumption – not withdrawal – is the critical factor in understanding allocations of water resources. About 80% of total U.S. consumptive water use is allocated to agriculture, almost all for irrigation.[1-6]
Additionally, more than half of agricultural consumption is from groundwater (as opposed to surface water).[7] Groundwater is not easily replenishable and is being depleted at rates that are unsustainable.[8,9] (Surface waters, including streams, rivers, and lakes, can also be depleted by irrigation.)
Rehkamp, S., et al., (2021) Tracking the U.S. Domestic Food Supply Chain’s Freshwater Use Over Time, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. p. 1. [“In the United States, agricultural uses account for 80 percent of consumptive water use (i.e., water removed from its source but not returned).”]
Richter, B. D., et al., (2020). Water scarcity and fish imperilment driven by beef production. Nature Sustainability, 3(4), 319–328, Table 1, p. 321. [Crop irrigation (75%) + Livestock Watering (2%) = 77%]
Rushforth, R. R. & Ruddell, B. L. (2018). A spatially detailed blue water footprint of the United States economy. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 22(5), 3007-3032. [“Further, the water footprint of agriculture and livestock is 93% of the total US blue water footprint, and is dominated by irrigated agriculture in the western US.”]
Marston, L., et al., (2018). High‐resolution water footprints of production of the United States. Water Resources Research, 54(3), 2288-2316 [Agricultural tally = 74% for irrigation + 2% for livestock direct use = 76%]
Konar, M. & Marston, L. (2020). The Water Footprint of the United States. Water (Basel), 12(11), 3286. [Acknowledging the uncertainty in agriculture’s share: “Between 74–93% … of all blue water consumed in the US is for irrigated agriculture and livestock production.” References the 2 prior footnotes (3 and 4). at p. 3. “Blue water is water from a source, such as a reservoir, river, lake, or aquifer.” at p. 2]
Note: Globally, agriculture accounts for an even higher share. See, Richter, B. D., et al., (2023). Alleviating water scarcity by optimizing crop mixes. Nature Water, 1(12), 1035-1047. p. 1035 [“Irrigated agriculture accounts for 88% of all fresh water consumed globally, meaning that seven times more water is consumed on irrigated farms than in all of humanity’s other water uses combined.”]
Lamsal, G. & Marston, L. T. (2024). Monthly crop water requirements of irrigated crops in the United States from 1981-2019. Authorea Preprints. See, Table S-2 p. 5.
Lopez, J. R., et al. (2022). Sustainable use of groundwater may dramatically reduce irrigated production of maize, soybean, and wheat. Earth’s Future, 10(1), e2021EF002018.
Rojanasakul, Mira, et al., (August 28, 2023). America Is Using Up Its Groundwater Like There’s No Tomorrow. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/08/28/climate/groundwater-drying-climate-change.html
Factory farms use large amounts of water – for drinking water, manure management, cleaning, etc. Broadly estimated, livestock water consumption on farms accounts for about 2% of total national water consumption.[1-3]
Slaughter and processing plants are also large users of water relative to the total usage of their local communities. These plants generate wastewater with high levels of contaminants.[4]
Richter, B. D., et al., (2020). Water scarcity and fish imperilment driven by beef production. Nature Sustainability, 3(4), 319–328, Table 1, p. 321. [Livestock Watering = 2% of national consumption]
Marston, L., et al., (2018). High‐resolution water footprints of production of the United States. Water Resources Research, 54(3), 2288-2316. [“The direct water consumption for animal husbandry is 2.59 x 10 to the 9th cubic meters.” 2.59 / 127.7 (total consumption) = 2.0%. “We assume that all water utilized in livestock production is consumed (i.e., no return flows).” p. 2295]
Dieter, C.A. et al., (2018) Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2015, U.S. Geological Survey, Table 8, p. 32. [Estimated livestock withdrawal at 2 billion gallons per day. Assuming (per the prior footnote) that it is all consumed, this is about 2.7% of the 73.2 billion gallons per day consumed by irrigation, and therefore about 2% of all consumption (assuming agricultural irrigation at about 80% of total consumption). The USGS defines livestock to include dairy cows, beef cattle, sheep and lambs, goats, hogs, horses, and poultry.]
USDA FSIS (2022) Use of Water in Animal Production, Slaughter, and Processing, Journal of Food Protection, Vol. 85, No. 12, 1756–1778 (Adopted 2021, Washington DC, National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods), p. 1764. [“Water used in establishments processing animal protein contains high amounts of organic matter, pathogenic and nonpathogenic microorganisms, and residual chemicals from cleaning and sanitizing activities.”]
The largest impact is on biodiversity and ecosystems.[1] Freshwater species are in crisis in the U.S.[2] A central reason is that feed crop irrigation is shrinking habitats (both surface water and groundwater) and altering water flows.[3]
Humans will likely find ways to meet their water needs, but at the expense of other species with limited adaptability.[4]
See, Animal Ag Water Use Pressure on Biodiversity
NatureServe (2023). Biodiversity in Focus: United States Edition. NatureServe: Arlington, VA, p. 11. [“As a group, species associated with fresh water, including amphibians, snails, mussels, crayfish, and many aquatic insects, have the highest percentage of at-risk species, highlighting the importance of conservation strategies to protect freshwater ecosystems.”]
For example, see: Richter et al., (2025) Reducing irrigation of livestock feed is essential to saving Great Salt Lake, Environmental Challenges 18:101065, p. 3. [“The Great Salt Lake plays a pivotal role in sustaining biodiversity across western North America through its large, interconnected wetlands. The lake serves as a crucial nexus within the Pacific Flyway, offering food and habitat to over 10 million migratory birds and nearly 350 bird species.”]
Dudgeon, D. & Strayer, D. L. (2025). Bending the curve of global freshwater biodiversity loss: what are the prospects? Biological Reviews, 100(1), 205-226. p. 1. [“In many parts of the world, the Anthropocene future seems certain to include extended periods with an absolute scarcity of uncontaminated surface runoff that will inevitably be appropriated by humans.”]
Yes. The southwestern U.S. has been identified as one of four “mega-drying regions” of the world.[1] High levels of water consumption for agriculture and especially for feed crops should be a critical issue in this region,[2] particularly since expected “rising air temperatures increase crop water demand and increase climate variability leading to longer or more severe drought.”[3]
A study of six agriculturally important river basins in the western U.S. (including Colorado and the Great Salt Lake) found that cattle feed crops are the largest water consumers in 57% of the region’s sub-basins.[4]
In the Colorado River Basin, emergency measures are being taken to deal with a river depletion crisis.[5] One study found that cattle feed crops (alfalfa and hay) account for 46% of all direct water consumed from the Colorado River. In the Upper Basin, cattle feed crops consumed 90% of all water used by irrigated agriculture which “amounts to more than three times what is consumed for municipal, commercial, or industrial uses combined.”[6]
Water in the Great Salt Lake is also being depleted, with cattle feed crops accounting for 80% of all agricultural water consumed.[7] To date, state legislators have been unwilling to constrain the industries that use the most water.[8]
Water insecurity in the west is a “multifaceted social‐environmental issue characterized by physical shortages, conflicts of access, and concerns over degrading water quality.”[9] In a time of climate change and increasing drought, this has an enormous negative impact on fish and aquatic ecosystems, exacerbated by high water usage levels for feed crops.[10,11]
Chandanpurkar, H. A., et al., (2025). Unprecedented continental drying, shrinking freshwater availability, and increasing land contributions to sea level rise. Science Advances, 11(30), eadx0298, p. 2. and Figure 1. [“The “four continental-scale mega-drying regions“ include “the contiguous region of southwestern North America and Central America, where aridification and groundwater depletion continue or are worsening…”]
Schmidt, J. C., et al., (2023). The Colorado River water crisis: Its origin and the future. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water, 10(6), e1672, p. 8. [“Because agriculture uses the most water in the Basin, water use can only be significantly reduced if there are large reductions in agricultural use. … Alfalfa and pasture grasses, used as livestock feed, are the primary crop in much of the Basin, and use of large amounts of water for this purpose has been questioned.”]
USGS (2025). Climate Change and Future Water Availability in the United States, Chapter E of U.S. Geological Survey Integrated Water Availability Assessment—2010–20, Paper 1894-E, p. 25.
Richter, B. D., et al., (2023), Alleviating water scarcity by optimizing crop mixes. nature water, vol 1, 1035-1047, Abstract. [“In this study, we combined modelled crop water requirements and detailed agricultural statistics within a national hydrological model to quantify sub-basin-level river depletion, finding high-to-severe levels of irrigation scarcity in 30% of sub-basins in the western United States, with cattle-feed crops—alfalfa and other hay—being the largest water consumers in 57% of the region’s sub-basins.”]
See for example, Scott Franz (May 8, 2026) Colorado River Basin water crisis deepens with record low summer inflow. Sentinel Colorado.
Richter, B. S., et al., (2024). New water accounting reveals why the Colorado River no longer reaches the sea. Communications Earth & Environment, 5, 134, p. 3.
Richter, B. D., et al., (2025). Reducing irrigation of livestock feed is essential to saving Great Salt Lake. Environmental Challenges 18, 101065, p. 5.
Leia Larsen (May 6, 2025). The Great Salt Lake Is Drying. Can Utah Save It? The New York Times.
Drakes, O., et al., (2024), Social Vulnerability and Water Insecurity in the Western United States: A Systematic Review of Framings, Indicators, and Uncertainty. Water Resources Research, 60, e2023WR036284, p. 1.
Richter, B. D., et al, (2020) Water scarcity and fish imperilment driven by beef production. Nature sustainability, vol 3., 319-328, p. 320. [“We estimate that 60 fish species in the western US are at elevated risk of imperilment or extinction due to flow depletion, and that 53 (88%) of these are primarily due to irrigation of cattle-feed crops.”]
USGS (2025). Climate Change and Future Water Availability in the United States, p. 25. [“Cascading effects include higher uncertainty in low-flow predictions, increased stream temperatures, acceleration of cold-water fish species decline, saltwater intrusion, infiltration of pollutants to groundwater, and decreased surface-water availability during drought.”]
Most federal agencies and many researchers view all crops as being of equal value; they are treated as the essential products of American farmers “feeding the world.” Rarely acknowledged is the fact that our top 3 crops are almost entirely used for animal feed (here and in relatively wealthy foreign countries), biofuels, corn fructose, or cheap cooking oil. That we choose to grow these crops in water-stressed areas is often viewed as an unfortunate necessity rather than an unnecessary choice.
Factory farming’s contribution to the steady depletion of a critical common resource is another under-explored negative externality of this industry.