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Cattle and Dairy Housing & Space Allotments

Cattle raised for beef are typically sent to feedlots in the final stage of beef production. Most cattle are kept in outdoor pens, with some kept indoors in confinement structures.[1]

Outdoor feedlots are on bare soil and are subdivided into fenced pens with feed troughs. Some lots have raised areas for the cattle to lie down on drier ground. Some provide windbreaks, shade canopies, or small open sheds for shelter.[2,3] 

Confinement structures vary, though typically have a full roof and partial or total solid concrete flooring. Some confinement structures have slatted concrete built over a manure storage area.[4]

Mud and manure accumulate in outdoor feedlots, with mud depth a factor in productivity and weight gain.[5] Wet conditions increase the incidence of digital dermatitis – a bacterial infection in cattle hoofs that causes lameness.[6]

Most outdoor feedlots are in drier areas. States like Iowa and Illinois which have high rainfall rates are moving toward indoor facilities with concrete slatted floors.[7,8] Hard surfaces predispose cattle to various hoof and joint diseases and make it uncomfortable or painful to lie down.[9]

 

  1. Temple Grandin. (2016). Evaluation of the welfare of cattle housed in outdoor feedlot pens. Veterinary and Animal Science, 1-2(C), 23–28, p. 23. [“In the U.S., outdoor feedlots are used to fatten (finish) over 75% of the young steers and heifers raised for beef.”]
  2. Iowa State Univ Extension (2015) Beef Feedlot Systems Manual.
  3. Kansas State Univ. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service (2019) Planning and Designing Cattle Feedlots.
  4. Iowa State Univ Extension (2015), p. 13.
  5. Univ of Nebraska-Lincoln (2016) Controlling Muddy Conditions in the Feedlot, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resource, UNL Beef. https://beef.unl.edu/controlling-muddy-conditions-feedlot
  6. Marti, S. et al., (2016). Risk factors associated with lameness severity in feedlot cattle. Journal of Animal Science, 94(10), 38–39, p. 38. [“…cattle housed in pens with a mud depth greater than 5 cm (about 2 inches) had double the risk of becoming severely lame as those cattle housed in pens with a mud depth < 5 cm.”]
  7. Temple Grandin. (2016), p. 26.
  8. Iowa State Univ Extension (2015), p. 13. [In Iowa, “… of operations that expanded in the last five years, approximately 25% expanded with open lots without shelter, 25% expanded with open lots with shelter, and 50% used confinement.”]
  9. Graunke, K.L. et al., (2011). Does rubber flooring improve welfare and production in growing bulls in fully slatted floor pens? Animal Welfare, 20(2), 173–183, p. 181. [“…further indicates that it is uncomfortable or even painful to lie down on concrete.”]

Cattle typically remain in feedlots for the last 6 months of their lives.[1-3] The “finishing weight,” or the weight at which cattle are sent to slaughter, averages ~1,370 lbs.[4]

 

  1. USDA (2023) Cattle & Beef: Sector at a Glance
    https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/animal-products/cattle-beef/sector-at-a-glance/
    [“Depending on weight at feedlot placement, feeding conditions, and desired grade, the feeding period can be 90 to 300 days.”]
  2. USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (2011) Beef Feedlot Industry Manual, Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness & Response Plan (FADPRep), p. 9. [“Cattle typically remain in feedlots for 150 to 180 days…”]
  3. Derrell S. Peel (2023) Feedlot Trends in Management and Productivity, Oklahoma State University Extension. [Study in Kansas notes, “current average of 187 days, up by 39 days from 2010.”]
  4. USDA NASS (April 2024) Livestock Slaughter 2023 Summary, p. 15. [Average slaughter weight 2023 = 1,368 pounds]

Feedlot space allocations per head vary according to the type of feedlot, geographical location, and animal size.

 In open feedlots with earthen floors, space allotments per cattle average ~300 square feet, though they can range from 200-500 sq. ft.[1,2] In concrete surfaced open yard pens, allotted space falls to ~75 sq. ft. per animal.

 In covered or partially covered confinement structures, cattle are afforded even less space at ~30-45 sq. ft.[4] A space allotment of 20-25 sq. ft. is reported in some indoor structures.[5,6]

At 45 sq. ft. per animal, the space in a typical small garage (12’ x 20’) would hold 5 cattle weighing on average about a thousand pounds each.

 

  1. Rusche, W. et al., (2019). PSI-3 Heat stress mitigation strategies used by Midwestern cattle feeders. Journal of Animal Science, 97(Supplement_2), 159–160, p. 618.[Average space allowances per animal in earthen surfaced, open yard facilities were 32.2 (347 sq. ft.) for Nebraska, and 27.0 m2 (290 sq. ft.) for Minnesota & South Dakota]
  2. Boyer, W. et al., (2017) Guidelines for Planning Cattle Feedlots, Kansas State Univ. Cooperative Ext., publication MF3392. [“Generally, 200 to 500 square feet per head is adequate pen space, depending on geographical location, animal size, and topography. (300 square feet per head is average).”]
  3. Rusche, W. et al., (2019), p. 618. [7.0 sq meters, or 75 sq. ft.]
  4. Rusche, W. et al., (2019), p. 619. [“Space allowances for bed pack and slatted floor facilities were 4.0 (43 sq. ft.) and 2.6 m2 (28 sq. ft.), respectively.”]
  5. Bruce Dirkson (2022) Feedlot Pen Space Factors and Impacts. FeedlotMagazine.com. [20-25 sq. ft. in some slatted barns]
  6. Iowa State Univ Extension (2015) Beef Feedlot Systems Manual, p. 7.[Guidelines for minimum allotments per head are similar to, or slightly lower than, the figures noted above: Open earthen lot with windbreak or with shed – 150 sq. ft.; Open concrete lot – 60 sq. ft.; Open concrete lot with shed – 70 sq. ft.; Deep-bedded confinement – 40 sq. ft.; Slatted floor confinement – 23 sq. ft.]

Housing for dairy herds is influenced by herd size and climate, and conditions vary for different animal groups including calves, heifers, lactating cows, and dry cows.

Freestalls – The most common housing facility for lactating cows are freestall barns with roofing, open sides, stall-like metal separators with room for a cow to lie down, and an alley to allow some movement in the barn.[1] The last USDA survey on dairy management practices in the U.S. reported that more than half (51.5%) of large operations (500 cows or more) housed lactating cows in freestalls with no outdoor access, and another 25% used freestalls with access to a dry lot.[2] (More than 70% of dairy cows are raised on farms with more than 500 cows.)[3]

Many operations have more dairy cows in a freestall barn than individual stalls, which means that not all cows have access to a stall at any given time. “The fixed costs of freestall barns may make it economically attractive to increase the stocking density past the level where cow behavioral needs are best met.”[4] Although stocking densities of 120% are recommended (20% of cows without access to a stall at any given time) it is common for some farms to maintain higher densities.[5]

Tie Stalls – A second type of dairy uses tie stalls in which cows are tethered by chain in individual cubicles with metal separators. About half of operations with fewer than 100 cows use tie stalls for lactating cows, and more than 10% of larger operations use them.[6] Although there is “ample evidence that the expression of highly motivated behavioral patterns is impaired in tie stalls,” their use “has received little attention in North America, relative to other forms of restrictive farm animal housing.”[7,8]

 

  1. Kevin Janni & Erin Cortus (2019) Common Animal Production Systems and Manure Storage Methods, in Animal Manure: Production, Characteristics, Environmental Concerns, and Management, Waldrip, H. M. et al. (eds.), American Society of Agronomy, Publication 67, Madison, WI, pp. 35-37.
  2. USDA Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service (2016) Dairy 2014: Dairy Cattle Management Practices in the United States, 2014, Report 1, p. 163.
  3. USDA NASS (2024) 2022 Census of Agriculture, Table 17.
  4. De Vries, A. et al., (2016). Economic evaluation of stall stocking density of lactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science, 99(5), 3848–3857, p. 3849.
  5. Dairy Herd Management (2017) Pay Attention to Dairy Cow Stocking Density.  https://www.dairyherd.com/news/dairy-production/pay-attention-dairy-cow-stocking-density
  6. Dairy 2014: Dairy Cattle Management Practices in the United States, 2014, p. 163. [These operations use a tie stall or stanchion, defined as “Housing in which a cow is restrained to a particular stall in a device with two rails that close around the cow’s neck after she enters the stall. Cows are not able to enter and leave the stalls at will.”]
  7. Beaver, A. et al., (2021). Invited review: The welfare of dairy cattle housed in tiestalls compared to less-restrictive housing types: A systematic review. Journal of Dairy Science, 104(9), 9383–9417, p. 9410.
  8. Robbins, J. A., et al., (2019). Factors influencing public support for dairy tie stall housing in the US. PLoS One, 14(5), e0216544, p. 2.

As a broad estimate, ~5% of dairy cows are kept primarily on pasture. Conversely, ~95% of dairy cows are completely or mostly confined.[1-3]

 

  1. Smid, A.M.C., et al., (2020). The Influence of Different Types of Outdoor Access on Dairy Cattle Behavior. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 257, p. 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00257 [“Pasture-based dairy farming was once the norm in the United States, but data from 2013 show that pasture is used as the primary system for fewer than 3% of lactating cows and for 5.0% of dry cows.”]
  2. USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (2016) Dairy 2014: Dairy Cattle Management Practices in the United States, 2014, Report 1 [The calculations by Smid et al. (as noted above) are based on this USDA report: Tables E.1a and E1.f and D.1.b on pages 163, 159, and 149. When we apply the USDA’s same percentages for farm size and “primary housing type: pasture” to 2022 inventory data, (USDA 2022 Agricultural Census, table 17) they are comparable to calculations by Smid, at approximately 3% for lactating cows, 5% for dry cows, and 3% for weaned heifers. Assuming that producers of similar farm sizes still have similar shares of cows pastured, these overall percentages would still be reasonable estimates.]
  3. Note: A larger percentage of dairy cows have some access to pasture. See Dairy 2014: Dairy Cattle Management Practices in the United States, 2014, Report 1. [“Overall, 19.9 percent of lactating cows and 34.0 percent of dry cows had some pasture access.” at p. ix]

The vast majority of dairy producers, and virtually all large operations, bring cows to a so-called “milking parlor” rather than milking them in their stalls.[1,2]

In the milking parlors, most operations use automated milking systems (AMS) – either stationary robotic systems on smaller farms or rotary milking parlors on large operations. Rotary milking parlors load cows on to a carousel as it turns, while workers attach suction pumps to each cow’s teats. One rotary manufacturer advertises carousels that can hold up to 120 cows.[3]

The key benefits of AMS for operators are reduced labor costs, increased milk production, improved data management, and in some systems there is a potential benefit to the cows who can voluntarily walk into a milking stall.[4] Key challenges to automated systems include significant capital investment, maintenance costs with equipment that might be running 24 hours a day, and an unavoidably dirty environment due to the difficulty of keeping large, complex equipment clean.[5]

The capital investment involved in robotic milking machines has, in part, contributed to continuing consolidation of the industry into larger dairy operations.[6]   

  

  1. Gillespie, J. et al., (2014) The adoption of technologies, management practices, and production systems in US milk production, Agricultural and Food Economics, ISSN 2193-7532, Springer, Heidelberg, Vol. 2, table 2, p. 10. https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/108932 [~89% of milk produced in the U.S. was done in milking parlors in 2010.]
  2. USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (2016) Dairy 2014: Dairy Cattle Management Practices in the United States, 2014, Report 1, p. 179. [99.8% of operations with > 500 cows]
  3. GEA Milking & Farming Systems, External Rotary Milking Parlor Dairyrotor T8900, https://www.gea.com/en/products/milking-farming-barn/dairyrotor-milk-rotary/dairyrotor-external-rotaries/dairyrotor-t8900-rotary-parlor.jsp
  4. Dr. Larry Tranel (2017) Economics or Robotic Milking Systems, Iowa State Univ. Extension, https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Larry_Tranel.pdf
  5. Neil Sharp (2024) The Milk Race: 6 Challenges with Milking Robots that Innovators Must Address. Escatec. https://www.escatec.com/blog/challenges-with-milking-robots-that-innovators-must-address
  6. Jamie Martin (2024) Tech drives growth in US dairy production. New York Ag Connection. https://newyorkagconnection.com/news/tech-drives-growth-in-us-dairy-production

Most dairy calves are taken from their mothers on the day they are born, often within one or two hours of birth.[1-3] The rationale is generally that the calf will have lower risk of diseases and mortality, though the evidence for this has been questioned.[4,5]

Until the calves are weaned (i.e., transitioned to solid food from milk and milk-replacers), most will be housed individually in small hutches, indoors or outdoors depending on climate.[6] This is purportedly for improved calf health.[7]

The usable space in a standard outdoor calf hutch is ~25 sq. ft.[8] Dairy calves are generally weaned at about 2 months of age.[9]

The welfare and housing of calves born to dairy cows vary depending on their sex, whether they will be raised for dairy, beef, or veal, and whether they are transported to a specialized production operation or to the slaughterhouse. The long-distance truck transport of new-born dairy calves is one of many well-hidden dairy cow welfare issues.[10,11]

 

  1. Urie, N. J., et al., (2018). Preweaned heifer management on US dairy operations: Part I. Descriptive characteristics of preweaned heifer raising practices. Journal of dairy science, 101(10), 9168-9184, p. 9174. [The general recommendation is to remove the calf from its dam within 2 h(ours) following birth…” notes these USDA researchers]
  2. Amaral-Phillips, D.M. et al., (2006) Feeding and Managing Baby Calves from Birth to 3 Months of Age, Univ. of Kentucky College of Agriculture, ASC-161, p. 2. [“Generally, dairy calves are removed from their dam shortly after the dam has licked the calf clean (within one hour).”]
  3. USDA APHIS (2016) Dairy 2014: Dairy Cattle Management Practices in the United States, 2014, Part 1, p. 104. [~35% of heifer calves separated from their mothers in under an hour and ~85% in under 6 hours on operations with > 500 cows.]
  4. Dairy 2014: Dairy Cattle Management Practices in the United States, 2014, Part 1, p. 103 [“To decrease the risk of disease transmission, newborn calves should be quickly removed from their dam following birth and placed in a warm and dry environment.”]
  5. Beaver, A., et al., (2019). Invited review: A systematic review of the effects of early separation on dairy cow and calf health. Journal of Dairy Science, 102(7), 5784-5810, p. 5805. [“The evidence extracted from the included journal articles does not support a recommendation of early dairy cow-calf separation on the basis of calf or cow health.”]
  6. Dairy 2014: Dairy Cattle Management Practices in the United States, 2014, Part 1, p. 116. [~70% of all operations housed pre-weaned heifer calves in individual hutch or pen, with an additional 5% using tie stalls or stanchions (metal neck restraint).]
  7. Dairy 2014: Dairy Cattle Management Practices in the United States, 2014, Part 1, p. vi. [“Primarily, preweaned heifer calves are individually housed to reduce the spread of disease and to monitor feed intake.”]
  8. Hampel’s Calf-tel, Calf Housing. https://calftel.com/product/outdoor-calf-hutches/standard-outdoor-calf-hutch/
    [“Standard outdoor calf hutch” has inside usable calf space of: 83.5” L x 45” W x 49” H = 26.1 sq. ft.]
  9. Dairy 2014: Dairy Cattle Management Practices in the United States, 2014, Part 1, p. 142.  [Most common timeframe at 9 weeks. Note: Normal weaning time for cattle/calf on pasture is 6 to 8 months. See: Strategies for easing the weaning process for beef calves, Oregon State U. Extension Service, https://extension.oregonstate.edu/animals-livestock/beef/strategies-easing-weaning-process-beef-calves]
  10. Cook, N., et al., (September 2023) The evolution of dairy cattle welfare, American Assoc. of Bovine Practitioners; AABP Proceedings, Vol 56, No. 2, p. 47. [Welfare issues include zero-grazing, dehorning and castration without anesthesia, quantity-restricted diets for young calves, lameness and hock injuries, use of tie stalls and stanchions, cow-calf separation at birth, raising calves in individual pens, killing surplus male and female calves at birth, long transport times for young calves, and the failure to cull spent cows. “…these issues are shocking to the customer once they are made aware of them.”]
  11. Animal Welfare Institute (2024) Long-Distance Transport of Young Dairy Calves. https://awionline.org/content/long-distance-transport-young-dairy-calves [“…the industry routinely subjects hundreds of thousands of young, unweaned calves to stressful journeys of up to 1,000 miles or more throughout the country…”]

Life & Treatment